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जवाहरलाल नेहरू

भारत के प्रथम प्रधानमंत्री

जवाहरलाल नेहरू (नवंबर १४, १८८९ - मई २७, १९६४) भारत के प्रथम प्रधानमन्त्री थे और स्वतन्त्रता के पूर्व और पश्चात् की भारतीय राजनीति में केन्द्रीय व्यक्तित्व थे। महात्मा गांधी के संरक्षण में, वे भारतीय स्वतन्त्रता आन्दोलनके सर्वोच्च नेता के रूप में उभरे और उन्होंने १९४७ में भारत के एक स्वतन्त्र राष्ट्र के रूप में स्थापना से लेकर १९६४ तक अपने निधन तक, भारत का शासन किया। वे आधुनिक भारतीय राष्ट्र-राज्य – एक सम्प्रभु, समाजवादी, धर्मनिरपेक्ष, और लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र - के वास्तुकार मानें जाते हैं। कश्मीरी पण्डित समुदाय के साथ उनके मूल की वजह से वे पण्डित नेहरू भी बुलाएँ जाते थे, जबकि भारतीय बच्चे उन्हें चाचा नेहरू के रूप में जानते हैं।

पण्डित जवाहरलाल नेहरू
1947 में जवाहरलाल नेहरू
भारत के प्रथम प्रधानमन्त्री
पद बहाल 15 अगस्त 1947 – 27 मई 1964
राजा	जॉर्ज षष्ठम् (26 जनवरी 1950 तक)
राष्ट्रपति	राजेन्द्र प्रसाद सर्वपल्ली राधाकृष्णन
गर्वनर जनरल	बर्मा के पहले अर्ल माउंटबेटन चक्रवर्ती राजगोपालाचारी (26 जनवरी 1950 तक)
सहायक	वल्लभभाई पटेल
पूर्वा धिकारी	पद स्थापित
उत्तरा धिकारी	गुलज़ारीलाल नन्दा (कार्यकारी)
रक्षा मन्त्री
पद बहाल 31 अक्टूबर 1962 – 14 नवम्बर 1962
पूर्वा धिकारी	वि० के० कृष्ण मेनन
उत्तरा धिकारी	यशवंतराव चव्हाण
पद बहाल 30 जनवरी 1957 – 17 अप्रैल 1957
पूर्वा धिकारी	कैलाश नाथ काटजू
उत्तरा धिकारी	वि० के० कृष्ण मेनन
पद बहाल 10 फरवरी 1953 – 10 जनवरी 1955
पूर्वा धिकारी	एन० गोपालस्वामी अय्यंगार
उत्तरा धिकारी	कैलाश नाथ काटजू
वित्त मन्त्री
पद बहाल 13 फरवरी 1958 – 13 मार्च 1958
पूर्वा धिकारी	तिरुवल्लूर थट्ठाई कृष्णामाचारी
उत्तरा धिकारी	मोरारजी देसाई
पद बहाल 24 जुलाई 1956 – 30 अगस्त 1956
पूर्वा धिकारी	चिन्तामन द्वारकानाथ देशमुख
उत्तरा धिकारी	तिरुवल्लूर थट्ठाई कृष्णामाचारी
विदेश मन्त्री
पद बहाल 15 अगस्त 1947 – 27 मई 1964
पूर्वा धिकारी	पद स्थापित
उत्तरा धिकारी	गुलज़ारीलाल नन्दा
जन्म	14 नवम्बर 1889 इलाहबाद, उत्तर-पश्चिमी प्रान्त, ब्रिटिश भारत (अब उत्तर प्रदेश, भारत में)
मृत्यु	27 मई 1964 (उम्र 74) नई दिल्ली, भारत
राजनीतिक दल	भारतीय राष्ट्रीय कांग्रेस
जीवन संगी	कमला कौल
संबंध	नेहरू–गांधी परिवार देखें
बच्चे	इन्दिरा गांधी
शैक्षिक सम्बद्धता	ट्रिनिटी कॉलेज, कैम्ब्रिज इन्स ऑफ़ कोर्ट
पेशा	बैरिस्टर लेखक राजनीतिज्ञ
हस्ताक्षर
Military service
पुरस्कार	भारत रत्न (1955)

स्वतन्त्र भारत के प्रथम प्रधानमन्त्री का पद सँभालने के लिए कांग्रेस द्वारा नेहरू निर्वाचित हुएँ, यद्यपि नेतृत्व का प्रश्न बहुत पहले 1941 में ही सुलझ चुका था, जब गांधीजी ने नेहरू को उनके राजनीतिक वारिस और उत्तराधिकारी के रूप में अभिस्वीकार किया। प्रधानमन्त्री के रूप में, वे भारत के सपने को साकार करने के लिए चल पड़े। भारत का संविधान1950 में अधिनियमित हुआ, जिसके बाद उन्होंने आर्थिक, सामाजिक और राजनीतिक सुधारों के एक महत्त्वाकांक्षी योजना की शुरुआत की। मुख्यतः, एक बहुवचनी, बहु-दलीय लोकतन्त्र को पोषित करते हुएँ, उन्होंने भारत के एक उपनिवेश से गणराज्य में परिवर्तन होने का पर्यवेक्षण किया। विदेश नीति में, भारत को दक्षिण एशिया में एक क्षेत्रीय नायक के रूप में प्रदर्शित करते हुएँ, उन्होंने गैर-निरपेक्ष आन्दोलन में एक अग्रणी भूमिका निभाई।

नेहरू के नेतृत्व में, कांग्रेस राष्ट्रीय और राज्य-स्तरीय चुनावों में प्रभुत्व दिखाते हुएँ और 1951, 1957, और 1962 के लगातार चुनाव जीतते हुएँ, एक सर्व-ग्रहण पार्टी के रूप में उभरी। उनके अन्तिम वर्षों में राजनीतिक मुसीबतों और 1962 के चीनी-भारत युद्ध में उनके नेतृत्व की असफलता के बावजूद, वे भारत के लोगों के बीच लोकप्रिय बने रहें। भारत में, उनका जन्मदिन बाल दिवस के रूप में मनाया जाता हैं।

जीवन

सेवा दल के एक सदस्य के रूप में खाकी पोशाक में नेहरू।

जवाहरलाल नेहरू का जन्म 14 नवम्बर 1889 को ब्रिटिश भारत में इलाहाबाद में हुआ। उनके पिता, मोतीलाल नेहरू(1861–1931), एक धनी बैरिस्टर जो कश्मीरी पण्डितसमुदाय से थे, ^[3] स्वतन्त्रता संग्राम के दौरान भारतीय राष्ट्रीय कांग्रेस के दो बार अध्यक्ष चुने गए। उनकी माता स्वरूपरानी थुस्सू (1868–1938), जो लाहौर में बसे एक सुपरिचित कश्मीरी ब्राह्मण परिवार से थी,^[4] मोतीलाल की दूसरी पत्नी थी व पहली पत्नी की प्रसव के दौरान मृत्यु हो गई थी। जवाहरलाल तीन बच्चों में से सबसे बड़े थे, जिनमें बाकी दो लड़कियाँ थी। ^[5] बड़ी बहन, विजया लक्ष्मी, बाद में संयुक्त राष्ट्र महासभा की पहली महिला अध्यक्ष बनी।^[6] सबसे छोटी बहन, कृष्णा हठीसिंग, एक उल्लेखनीय लेखिका बनी और उन्होंने अपने भाई पर कई पुस्तकें लिखी।

1890 के दशक में नेहरू परिवार

जवाहरलाल नेहरू ने दुनिया के कुछ बेहतरीन स्कूलों और विश्वविद्यालयों में शिक्षा प्राप्त की थी। उन्होंने अपनी स्कूली शिक्षा हैरो से और कॉलेज की शिक्षा ट्रिनिटी कॉलेज, लंदन से पूरी की थी। इसके बाद उन्होंने अपनी लॉ की डिग्री कैम्ब्रिज विश्वविद्यालय से पूरी की। इंग्लैंड में उन्होंने सात साल व्यतीत किए जिसमें वहां के फैबियन समाजवाद और आयरिश राष्ट्रवाद के लिए एक तर्कसंगत दृष्टिकोण विकसित किया।

जवाहरलाल नेहरू 1912 में भारत लौटे और वकालत शुरू की। 1916 में उनकी शादी कमला नेहरू से हुई। 1917 में जवाहर लाल नेहरू होम रुल लीग‎ में शामिल हो गए। राजनीति में उनकी असली दीक्षा दो साल बाद 1919 में हुई जब वे महात्मा गांधी के संपर्क में आए। उस समय महात्मा गांधी ने रॉलेट अधिनियम के खिलाफ एक अभियान शुरू किया था। नेहरू, महात्मा गांधी के सक्रिय लेकिन शांतिपूर्ण, सविनय अवज्ञा आंदोलन के प्रति खासे आकर्षित हुए।

नेहरू ने महात्मा गांधी के उपदेशों के अनुसार अपने परिवार को भी ढाल लिया। जवाहरलाल और मोतीलाल नेहरू ने पश्चिमी कपडों और महंगी संपत्ति का त्याग कर दिया। वे अब एक खादी कुर्ता और गाँधी टोपी पहनने लगे। जवाहर लाल नेहरू ने 1920-1922 में असहयोग आंदोलन में सक्रिय हिस्सा लिया और इस दौरान पहली बार गिरफ्तार किए गए। कुछ महीनों के बाद उन्हें रिहा कर दिया गया।

जवाहरलाल नेहरू 1924 में इलाहाबाद नगर निगम के अध्यक्ष चुने गए और उन्होंने शहर के मुख्य कार्यकारी अधिकारी के रूप में दो वर्ष तक सेवा की। 1926 में उन्होंने ब्रिटिश अधिकारियों से सहयोग की कमी का हवाला देकर इस्तीफा दे दिया।

1926 से 1928 तक, जवाहर लाल नेहरू ने अखिल भारतीय कांग्रेस समिति के महासचिव के रूप में सेवा की। 1928-29 में, कांग्रेस के वार्षिक सत्र का आयोजन मोतीलाल नेहरू की अध्यक्षता में किया गया। उस सत्र में जवाहरलाल नेहरू और सुभाष चन्द्र बोस ने पूरी राजनीतिक स्वतंत्रता की मांग का समर्थन किया, जबकि मोतीलाल नेहरू और अन्य नेताओं ने ब्रिटिश साम्राज्य के भीतर ही प्रभुत्व सम्पन्न राज्य का दर्जा पाने की मांग का समर्थन किया। मुद्दे को हल करने के लिए, गांधी ने बीच का रास्ता निकाला और कहा कि ब्रिटेन को भारत के राज्य का दर्जा देने के लिए दो साल का समय दिया जाएगा और यदि ऐसा नहीं हुआ तो कांग्रेस पूर्ण राजनीतिक स्वतंत्रता के लिए एक राष्ट्रीय संघर्ष शुरू करेगी। नेहरू और बोस ने मांग की कि इस समय को कम कर के एक साल कर दिया जाए। ब्रिटिश सरकार ने इसका कोई जवाब नहीं दिया।

दिसम्बर 1929 में, कांग्रेस का वार्षिक अधिवेशन लाहौर में आयोजित किया गया जिसमें जवाहरलाल नेहरू कांग्रेस पार्टी के अध्यक्ष चुने गए। इसी सत्र के दौरान एक प्रस्ताव भी पारित किया गया जिसमें 'पूर्ण स्वराज्य' की मांग की गई। 26 जनवरी 1930 को लाहौर में जवाहरलाल नेहरू ने स्वतंत्र भारत का झंडा फहराया। गांधी जी ने भी 1930 में सविनय अवज्ञा आंदोलन का आह्वान किया। आंदोलन खासा सफल रहा और इसने ब्रिटिश सरकार को प्रमुख राजनीतिक सुधारों की आवश्यकता को स्वीकार करने के लिए मजबूर कर दिया।

जब ब्रिटिश सरकार ने भारत अधिनियम 1935 प्रख्यापित किया तब कांग्रेस पार्टी ने चुनाव लड़ने का फैसला किया। नेहरू चुनाव के बाहर रहे लेकिन ज़ोरों के साथ पार्टी के लिए राष्ट्रव्यापी अभियान चलाया। कांग्रेस ने लगभग हर प्रांत में सरकारों का गठन किया और केन्द्रीय असेंबली में सबसे ज्यादा सीटों पर जीत हासिल की।

नेहरू कांग्रेस के अध्यक्ष पद के लिए 1936 और 1937 में चुने गए थे। उन्हें 1942 में भारत छोड़ो आंदोलन के दौरान गिरफ्तार भी किया गया और 1945 में छोड़ दिया गया। 1947 में भारत और पाकिस्तान की आजादी के समय उन्होंने अंग्रेजी सरकार के साथ हुई वार्ताओं में महत्त्वपूर्ण भागीदारी की।

भारत के प्रथम प्रधानमन्त्री

सन् १९४७ में भारत को आजादी मिलने पर जब भावी प्रधानमन्त्री के लिये कांग्रेस में मतदान हुआ तो तो सरदार पटेल को सर्वाधिक मत मिले। उसके बाद सर्वाधिक मत आचार्य कृपलानी को मिले थे। किन्तु गांधीजी के कहने पर सरदार पटेल और आचार्य कृपलानी ने अपना नाम वापस ले लिया और जवाहर लाल नेहरू को प्रधानमन्त्री बनाया गया।

1947 में वे स्वतंत्र भारत के पहले प्रधानमन्त्री बने। अंग्रेजों ने करीब 500 देशी रियासतों को एक साथ स्वतंत्र किया था और उस वक्त सबसे बडी चुनौती थी उन्हें एक झंडे के नीचे लाना। उन्होंने भारत के पुनर्गठन के रास्ते में उभरी हर चुनौती का समझदारी पूर्वक सामना किया। जवाहरलाल नेहरू ने आधुनिक भारत के निर्माण में महत्वपूर्ण भूमिका अदा की। उन्होंने योजना आयोग का गठन किया, विज्ञान और प्रौद्योगिकी के विकास को प्रोत्साहित किया और तीन लगातार पंचवर्षीय योजनाओं का शुभारंभ किया। उनकी नीतियों के कारण देश में कृषि और उद्योग का एक नया युग शुरु हुआ। नेहरू ने भारत की विदेश नीति के विकास में एक प्रमुख भूमिका निभाई।

जवाहर लाल नेहरू ने जोसिप बरोज़ टिटो और अब्दुल गमाल नासिर के साथ मिलकर एशिया और अफ्रीका में उपनिवेशवाद के खात्मे के लिए एक गुट निरपेक्ष आंदोलनकी रचना की। वह कोरियाई युद्ध का अंत करने, स्वेज नहरविवाद सुलझाने और कांगो समझौते को मूर्तरूप देने जैसे अन्य अंतरराष्ट्रीय समस्याओं के समाधान में मध्यस्थ की भूमिका में रहे। पश्चिम बर्लिन, ऑस्ट्रिया और लाओस के जैसे कई अन्य विस्फोटक मुद्दों के समाधान में पर्दे के पीछे रह कर भी उनका महत्वपूर्ण योगदान रहा। उन्हें वर्ष 1955 में भारत रत्न से सम्मनित किया गया।

लेकिन नेहरू पाकिस्तान और चीन के साथ भारत के संबंधों में सुधार नहीं कर पाए। पाकिस्तान के साथ एक समझौते तक पहुँचने में कश्मीर मुद्दा और चीन के साथ मित्रता में सीमा विवाद रास्ते के पत्थर साबित हुए। नेहरू ने चीन की तरफ मित्रता का हाथ भी बढाया, लेकिन 1962 में चीन ने धोखे से आक्रमण कर दिया। नेहरू के लिए यह एक बड़ा झटका था और शायद उनकी मौत भी इसी कारण हुई। 27 मई 1964 को जवाहरलाल नेहरू को दिल का दौरा पड़ा जिसमें उनकी मृत्य हो गयी।

Jawaharlal Nehru

Jawaharlal Nehru Hindustani:  14 November 1889 – 27 May 1964) was the first Prime Minister of India and a central figure in Indian politics before and after independence. He emerged as the paramount leader of the Indian independence movementunder the tutelage of Mahatma Gandhi and ruled India from its establishment as an independent nation in 1947 until his death in 1964. He is considered to be the architect of the modern Indian nation-state: a sovereign, socialist, secular, and democratic republic. He was also known as Pandit Nehru due to his roots with the Kashmiri Pandit community while many Indian children knew him as Chacha Nehru (Hindi, lit., "Uncle Nehru")

Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru
Jawaharlal Nehru in 1947
1st Prime Minister of India
In office 15 August 1947 – 27 May 1964
Monarch	George VI (until 26 January 1950)
President	Rajendra Prasad Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
Governor General	The Earl Mountbatten of Burma Chakravarti Rajagopalachari (until 26 January 1950)
Deputy	Vallabhbhai Patel
Preceded by	Position established
Succeeded by	Gulzarilal Nanda (Acting)
Minister of Defence
In office 31 October 1962 – 14 November 1962
Preceded by	V. K. Krishna Menon
Succeeded by	Yashwantrao Chavan
In office 30 January 1957 – 17 April 1957
Preceded by	Kailash Nath Katju
Succeeded by	V. K. Krishna Menon
In office 10 February 1953 – 10 January 1955
Preceded by	N. Gopalaswami Ayyangar
Succeeded by	Kailash Nath Katju
Minister of Finance
In office 13 February 1958 – 13 March 1958
Preceded by	Tiruvellore Thattai Krishnamachariar
Succeeded by	Morarji Desai
In office 24 July 1956 – 30 August 1956
Preceded by	Chintaman Dwarakanath Deshmukh
Succeeded by	Tiruvellore Thattai Krishnamachariar
Minister of External Affairs
In office 2 September 1946 – 27 May 1964
Preceded by	Position established
Succeeded by	Gulzarilal Nanda
Vice President of Executive Council
In office 2 September 1946 – 15 August 1947
Personal details
Born	14 November 1889 Allahabad, United Provinces, British India (now in Uttar Pradesh, India)
Died	27 May 1964 (aged 74) New Delhi, India
Cause of death	Heart attack
Resting place	Shantivan
Political party	Indian National Congress
Spouse(s)	Kamala Nehru (m. 1916; d. 1936)
Relations	See Nehru–Gandhi family
Children	Indira Gandhi
Parents	Motilal Nehru Swaruprani Thussu
Alma mater	Trinity College, Cambridge Inns of Court
Occupation	Barrister• writer• politician
Awards	Bharat Ratna (1955)
Signature

The son of Motilal Nehru, a prominent lawyer and nationalist statesman and Swaroop Rani, Nehru was a graduate of Trinity College, Cambridge and the Inner Temple, where he trained to be a barrister. Upon his return to India, he enrolled at the Allahabad High Court, and took an interest in national politics, which eventually replaced his legal practice. A committed nationalist since his teenage years, he became a rising figure in Indian politics during the upheavals of the 1910s. He became the prominent leader of the left-wing factions of the Indian National Congressduring the 1920s, and eventually of the entire Congress, with the tacit approval of his mentor, Gandhi. As Congress President in 1929, Nehru called for complete independence from the British Raj and instigated the Congress's decisive shift towards the left.

Nehru and the Congress dominated Indian politics during the 1930s as the country moved towards independence. His idea of a secular nation-state was seemingly validated when the Congress, under his leadership, swept the 1937 provincial elections and formed the government in several provinces; on the other hand, the separatist Muslim League fared much poorer. But these achievements were seriously compromised in the aftermath of the Quit India Movement in 1942, which saw the British effectively crush the Congress as a political organisation. Nehru, who had reluctantly heeded Gandhi's call for immediate independence, for he had desired to support the Allied war effort during World War II, came out of a lengthy prison term to a much altered political landscape. The Muslim League under his old Congress colleague and now opponent, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, had come to dominate Muslim politics in India. Negotiations between Nehru and Jinnah for power sharing failed and gave way to the independence and bloody partition of India in 1947.

Nehru was elected by the Congress to assume office as independent India's first Prime Minister, although the question of leadership had been settled as far back as 1941, when Gandhi acknowledged Nehru as his political heir and successor. As Prime Minister, he set out to realise his vision of India. The Constitution of India was enacted in 1950, after which he embarked on an ambitious program of economic, social and political reforms. Chiefly, he oversaw India's transition from a colony to a republic, while nurturing a plural, multi-party system. In foreign policy, he took a leading role in the Non-Aligned Movement while projecting India as a regional hegemon in South Asia.

Under Nehru's leadership, the Congress emerged as a catch-all party, dominating national and state-level politics and winning consecutive elections in 1951, 1957, and 1962. He remained popular with the people of India in spite of political troubles in his final years and failure of leadership during the 1962 Sino-Indian War. In India, his birthday is celebrated as Bal Diwas (Children's Day).

Early life and career (1889–1912)

Born

Jawaharlal Nehru was born on 14 November 1889 in Allahabad in British India. His father, Motilal Nehru (1861–1931), a wealthy barrister who belonged to the Kashmiri Panditcommunity,[4] served twice as President of the Indian National Congress during the Independence Struggle. His mother, Swaruprani Thussu (1868–1938), who came from a well-known Kashmiri Brahmin family settled in Lahore,[5] was Motilal's second wife, the first having died in child birth. Jawaharlal was the eldest of three children, two of whom were girls.The elder sister, Vijaya Lakshmi, later became the first female president of the United Nations General Assembly.[7] The youngest sister, Krishna Hutheesing, became a noted writer and authored several books on her brother.

Childhood

Nehru described his childhood as a "sheltered and uneventful one". He grew up in an atmosphere of privilege at wealthy homes including a palatial estate called the Anand Bhavan. His father had him educated at home by private governesses and tutors.8] Under the influence of a tutor, Ferdinand T. Brooks, he became interested in science and theosophy.[9] He was subsequently initiated into the Theosophical Society at age thirteen by family friend Annie Besant. However, his interest in theosophy did not prove to be enduring and he left the society shortly after Brooks departed as his tutor.He wrote: "for nearly three years [Brooks] was with me and in many ways he influenced me greatly".

Nehru's theosophical interests had induced him to the study of the Buddhist and Hindu scriptures] According to Bal Ram Nanda, these scriptures were Nehru's "first introduction to the religious and cultural heritage of [India]....[they] provided Nehru the initial impulse for [his] long intellectual quest which culminated...in The Discovery of India."

Youth

Nehru became an ardent nationalist during his youth. The Second Boer War and the Russo-Japanese War intensified his feelings. About the latter he wrote, "[The] Japanese victories [had] stirred up my enthusiasm ... Nationalistic ideas filled my mind ... I mused of Indian freedom and Asiatic freedom from the thraldom of Europe." Later when he had begun his institutional schooling in 1905 at Harrow, a leading school in England, he was greatly influenced by G. M. Trevelyan's Garibaldi books, which he had received as prizes for academic merit.[ He viewed Garibaldi as a revolutionary hero. He wrote: "Visions of similar deeds in India came before, of [my] gallant fight for [Indian] freedom and in my mind India and Italy got strangely mixed together."

Graduation

Nehru went to Trinity College, Cambridge in October 1907 and graduated with an honours degree in natural science in 1910.] During this period, he also studied politics, economics, history and literature desultorily. Writings of Bernard Shaw, H. G. Wells, J.M. Keynes, Bertrand Russell, Lowes Dickinsonand Meredith Townsend moulded much of his political and economic thinking.

After completing his degree in 1910, Nehru moved to London and studied law at Inner temple Inn During this time, he continued to study the scholars of the Fabian Societyincluding Beatrice Webb.He was called to the Bar in 1912,

Advocate practice

After returning to India in August 1912, Nehru enrolled himself as an advocate of the Allahabad High Court and tried to settle down as a barrister. But, unlike his father, he had only a desultory interest in his profession and did not relish either the practice of law or the company of lawyers. He wrote: "Decidedly the atmosphere was not intellectually stimulating and a sense of the utter insipidity of life grew upon me." His involvement in nationalist politics would gradually replace his legal practice in the coming year

Britain

Nehru had developed an interest in Indian politics during his time in Britain. Within months of his return to India in 1912 he had attended an annual session of the Indian National Congress in Patna] He was disconcerted with what he saw as a "very much an English-knowing upper class affair".The Congress in 1912 had been the party of moderates and elites. Nehru harboured doubts regarding the ineffectualness of the Congress but agreed to work for the party in support of the Indian civil rights movement in South Africa.He collected funds for the civil rights campaigners led by Mahatma Gandhi in 1913.Later, he campaigned against the indentured labour and other such discriminations faced by Indians in the British colonies.

World War I

When World War I broke out, sympathy in India was divided. Although educated Indians "by and large took a vicarious pleasure" in seeing the British rulers humbled, the ruling upper classes sided with the Allies. Nehru confessed that he viewed the war with mixed feelings. Frank Moraes wrote: "If [Nehru's] sympathy was with any country it was with France, whose culture he greatly admired."During the war, Nehru volunteered for the St John Ambulance and worked as one of the provincial secretaries of the organisation in Allahabad.] He also spoke out against the censorship acts passed by the British government in India.

Nehru in 1919 with wife Kamala and daughter Indira

Nehru emerged from the war years as a leader whose political views were considered radical. Although the political discourse had been dominated at this time by Gopal Krishna Gokhale,[a moderate who said that it was "madness to think of independence", Nehru had spoken "openly of the politics of non-cooperation, of the need of resigning from honorary positions under the government and of not continuing the futile politics of representation".He ridiculed the Indian Civil Service for its support of British policies. He noted that someone had once defined the Indian Civil Service, "with which we are unfortunately still afflicted in this country, as neither Indian, nor civil, nor a service".Motilal Nehru, a prominent moderate leader, acknowledged the limits of constitutional agitation, but counselled his son that there was no other "practical alternative" to it. Nehru, however, was not satisfied with the pace of the national movement. He became involved with aggressive nationalists leaders who were demanding Home Rule for Indians.

The influence of the moderates on Congress politics began to wane after Gokhale died in 1915.Anti-moderate leaders such as Annie Beasant and Bal Gangadhar Tilak took the opportunity to call for a national movement for Home Rule. But, in 1915, the proposal was rejected because of the reluctance of the moderates to commit to such a radical course of action. Besant nevertheless formed a league for advocating Home Rule in 1916; and Tilak, on his release from a prison term, had in April 1916 formed his own league. Nehru joined both leagues but worked especially for the former.He remarked later: "[Besant] had a very powerful influence on me in my childhood... even later when I entered political life her influence continued." Another development which brought about a radical change in Indian politics was the espousal of Hindu-Muslim unity with the Lucknow Pact at the annual meeting of the Congress in December 1916. The pact had been initiated earlier in the year at Allahabad at a meeting of the All India Congress Committee which was held at the Nehru residence at Anand Bhawan. Nehru welcomed and encouraged the rapprochement between the two Indian communities.

Home rule movement

Several nationalist leaders banded together in 1916 under the leadership of Annie Besant to voice a demand for self-governance, and to obtain the status of a Dominion within the British Empire as enjoyed by Australia, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand and Newfoundland at the time. Nehru joined the movement and rose to become secretary of Besant's Home Rule League.[26][27] In June 1917 Besant was arrested and interned by the British government. The Congress and various other Indian organisations threatened to launch protests if she were not set free. The British government was subsequently forced to release Besant and make significant concessions after a period of intense protest.

Non-cooperation

The first big national involvement of Nehru came at the onset of the Non-cooperation movement in 1920. He led the movement in the United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh). Nehru was arrested on charges of anti-governmental activities in 1921, and was released a few months later. In the rift that formed within the Congress following the sudden closure of the non-co-operation movement after the Chauri Chaura incident, Nehru remained loyal to Gandhi and did not join the Swaraj Party formed by his father Motilal Nehru and CR Das.

Internationalising the struggle

Nehru and his daughter Indira in Britain, 1930s

Nehru played a leading role in the development of the internationalist outlook of the Indian independence struggle. He sought foreign allies for India and forged links with movements for independence and democracy all over the world. In 1927, his efforts paid off and the Congress was invited to attend the congress of oppressed nationalities in Brussels in Belgium. The meeting was called to co-ordinate and plan a common struggle against imperialism. Nehru represented India and was elected to the Executive Council of the League against Imperialism that was born at this meeting.

Mid 1930s

During the mid-1930s, Nehru was much concerned with developments in Europe, which seemed to be drifting toward another world war. He was in Europe in early 1936, visiting his ailing wife, shortly before she died in a sanitarium in Switzerland. Even at this time, he emphasised that, in the event of war, India's place was alongside the democracies, though he insisted that India could only fight in support of Great Britain and France as a free country.

Company with Subhas Chandra Bose

Nehru closely worked with Subhas Chandra Bose in developing good relations with governments of free countries all over the world. However, the two split in the late 1930s, when Bose agreed to seek the help of fascists in driving the British out of India. At the same time, Nehru had supported the Republicans who were fighting against Francisco Franco's forces in the Spanish Civil War. Nehru along with his aide V. K. Krishna Menon visited Spain and declared support for the Republicans. He refused to meet Benito Mussolini, the dictator of Italy when the latter expressed his desire to meet him.

Republicanism

Nehru was one of the first nationalist leaders to realise the sufferings of the people in the states ruled by Indian princes. He suffered imprisonment in Nabha, a princely state, when he went there to see the struggle that was being waged by the Sikhs against the corrupt Mahants. The nationalist movement had been confined to the territories under direct British rule. He helped to make the struggle of the people in the princely states a part of the nationalist movement for independence. The All India States Peoples Conference was formed in 1927. Nehru who had been supporting the cause of the people of the princely states for many years was made the President of the conference in 1935. He opened up its ranks to membership from across the political spectrum. The body would play an important role during the political integration of India, helping Indian leaders Vallabhbhai Patel and V. P. Menon (to whom Nehru had delegated the task of integrating the princely states into India) negotiate with hundreds of princes.

Independence

In July 1946, Nehru pointedly observed that no princely state could prevail militarily against the army of independent India.[31] In January 1947, he said that independent India would not accept the Divine right of kings,[32]and in May 1947, he declared that any princely state which refused to join the Constituent Assembly would be treated as an enemy state. During the drafting of the Indian constitution, many Indian leaders (except Nehru) of that time were in favour of allowing each Princely state or Covenanting State to be independent as a federal state along the lines suggested originally by the Government of India act (1935). But as the drafting of the constitution progressed and the idea of forming a republic took concrete shape (because of the efforts of Nehru), it was decided that all the Princely states/Covenanting States would merge with the Indian republic. Nehru's daughter, Indira Gandhi, de-recognised all the rulers by a presidential order in 1969. But this was struck down by the Supreme Court of India. Eventually, the government by the 26th Amendment to the constitution was successful in abolishing the Princely states of India. The process began by Nehru was finally completed by his daughter by the end of 1971.

Declaration of Independence

Nehru was one of the first leaders to demand that the Congress Party should resolve to make a complete and explicit break from all ties with the British Empire. His resolution for independence was approved at the Madras session of Congress in 1927 despite Gandhi's criticism .At that time he also formed Independence for India league, a pressure group within the Congress,[33][34]

In 1928, Gandhi agreed to Nehru's demands and proposed a resolution that called for the British to grant dominion status to India within two years. If the British failed to meet the deadline, the Congress would call upon all Indians to fight for complete independence. Nehru was one of the leaders who objected to the time given to the British – he pressed Gandhi to demand immediate actions from the British. Gandhi brokered a further compromise by reducing the time given from two years to one. Nehru agreed to vote for the new resolution.

Demands for dominion status were rejected by the British in 1929. Nehru assumed the presidency of the Congress party during the Lahore session on 29 December 1929 and introduced a successful resolution calling for complete independence.

Draft of the declaration of independence

Nehru drafted the Indian declaration of independence, which stated:

We believe that it is the inalienable right of the Indian people, as of any other people, to have freedom and to enjoy the fruits of their toil and have the necessities of life, so that they may have full opportunities of growth. We believe also that if any government deprives a people of these rights and oppresses them the people have a further right to alter it or abolish it. The British government in India has not only deprived the Indian people of their freedom but has based itself on the exploitation of the masses, and has ruined India economically, politically, culturally and spiritually. We believe therefore, that India must sever the British connection and attain Purna Swaraj or complete independence.[35]

At midnight on New Year's Eve 1929, Nehru hoisted the tricolour flag of India upon the banks of the Ravi in Lahore. A pledge of independence was read out, which included a readiness to withhold taxes. The massive gathering of public attending the ceremony was asked if they agreed with it, and the vast majority of people were witnessed to raise their hands in approval. 172 Indian members of central and provincial legislatures resigned in support of the resolution and in accordance with Indian public sentiment. The Congress asked the people of India to observe 26 January as Independence Day. The flag of India was hoisted publicly across India by Congress volunteers, nationalists and the public. Plans for a mass civil disobedience were also underway.

After the Lahore session of the Congress in 1929, Nehru gradually emerged as the paramount leader of the Indian independence movement. Gandhi stepped back into a more spiritual role. Although Gandhi did not officially designate Nehru his political heir until 1942, the country as early as the mid-1930s saw in Nehru the natural successor to Gandhi.

Civil disobedience

Nehru and most of the Congress leaders were initially ambivalent about Gandhi's plan to begin civil disobedience with a satyagrahaaimed at the British salt tax. After the protest gathered steam, they realised the power of salt as a symbol. Nehru remarked about the unprecedented popular response, "it seemed as though a spring had been suddenly released".[36] He was arrested on 14 April 1930 while entraining from Allahabad for Raipur. He had earlier, after addressing a huge meeting and leading a vast procession, ceremoniously manufactured some contraband salt. He was charged with breach of the salt law, tried summarily behind prison walls and sentenced to six months of imprisonment.

He nominated Gandhi to succeed him as Congress President during his absence in jail, but Gandhi declined, and Nehru then nominated his father as his successor. With Nehru's arrest the civil disobedience acquired a new tempo, and arrests, firing on crowds and lathi charges grew to be ordinary occurrences.

Salt satyagraha success

The Salt Satyagraha succeeded in drawing the attention of the world. Indian, British, and world opinion increasingly began to recognise the legitimacy of the claims by the Congress party for independence. Nehru considered the salt satyagraha the high-water mark of his association with Gandhi,[37] and felt that its lasting importance was in changing the attitudes of Indians: